diff --git a/src/renderer/src/monitor/MonitorPanel.tsx b/src/renderer/src/monitor/MonitorPanel.tsx
index 8cc93da..dbc7c9e 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/monitor/MonitorPanel.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/monitor/MonitorPanel.tsx
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 import { useEffect, useRef, useState } from 'react'
 import type { SysinfoMeta, SysinfoSample } from '@shared/sysinfo'
-import { t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { DEFAULT_LANGUAGE, tFor, type Language } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { useSettingsStore } from '@renderer/settings/store'
 import { useWorkspaceModeStore } from '../workspace/workspaceModeStore'
 import './monitor.css'
 
@@ -119,14 +120,14 @@ function formatSize(mb: number): string {
 }
 
 /** human-readable uptime */
-function humanizeUptime(sec: number): string {
+function humanizeUptime(lang: Language, sec: number): string {
   const s = Math.floor(sec)
-  if (s < 60) return t('ssh.monitor.uptimeSeconds', { n: s })
+  if (s < 60) return tFor(lang, 'ssh.monitor.uptimeSeconds', { n: s })
   const mins = Math.floor(s / 60)
-  if (s < 3600) return t('ssh.monitor.uptimeMinutes', { n: mins })
+  if (s < 3600) return tFor(lang, 'ssh.monitor.uptimeMinutes', { n: mins })
   const hours = Math.floor(s / 3600)
-  if (s < 86400) return t('ssh.monitor.uptimeHours', { h: hours, m: Math.floor((s % 3600) / 60) })
-  return t('ssh.monitor.uptimeDays', { n: Math.floor(s / 86400) })
+  if (s < 86400) return tFor(lang, 'ssh.monitor.uptimeHours', { h: hours, m: Math.floor((s % 3600) / 60) })
+  return tFor(lang, 'ssh.monitor.uptimeDays', { n: Math.floor(s / 86400) })
 }
 
 function Bar({ pct, color }: { pct: number; color: string }) {
@@ -142,6 +143,10 @@ function Bar({ pct, color }: { pct: number; color: string }) {
 }
 
 export function MonitorPanel({ sessionId }: MonitorPanelProps): React.JSX.Element {
+  // Rendered inside a dockview panel, which is never re-rendered as part of the
+  // App→Workspace tree, so the language is subscribed here and every string is
+  // resolved with `tFor` instead of the module-level language `t()` reads.
+  const language = useSettingsStore((s) => s.settings.system.language ?? DEFAULT_LANGUAGE)
   const [meta, setMeta] = useState<SysinfoMeta | null>(null)
   const [sample, setSample] = useState<SysinfoSample | null>(null)
   const sampleRef = useRef<SysinfoSample | null>(null)
@@ -188,14 +193,14 @@ export function MonitorPanel({ sessionId }: MonitorPanelProps): React.JSX.Elemen
     if (sample?.error) {
       return (
         <div className="mm-root mm-empty mm-failed">
-          <div className="mm-error">{t('ssh.monitor.interrupted', { error: sample.error })}</div>
+          <div className="mm-error">{tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.interrupted', { error: sample.error })}</div>
         </div>
       )
     }
     return (
       <div className="mm-root mm-empty">
         <span className="mm-dots"><span /> <span /> <span /></span>
-        {t('ssh.monitor.collecting')}
+        {tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.collecting')}
       </div>
     )
   }
@@ -210,7 +215,7 @@ export function MonitorPanel({ sessionId }: MonitorPanelProps): React.JSX.Elemen
   return (
     <div className={`mm-root${failed ? ' mm-failed' : ''}`}>
       {failed && (
-        <div className="mm-error">{t('ssh.monitor.interrupted', { error: sample.error ?? '' })}</div>
+        <div className="mm-error">{tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.interrupted', { error: sample.error ?? '' })}</div>
       )}
 
       <header className="mm-header">
@@ -222,19 +227,19 @@ export function MonitorPanel({ sessionId }: MonitorPanelProps): React.JSX.Elemen
         <div className="mm-block-row">
           <span className="mm-label">CPU</span>
           <span className="mm-value" style={{ color: cpuColor(cpu.usage) }}>
-            {cpu.usage.toFixed(0)}%<span className="mm-value-sub"> · {t('ssh.monitor.cores', { n: cpu.cores })}</span>
+            {cpu.usage.toFixed(0)}%<span className="mm-value-sub"> · {tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.cores', { n: cpu.cores })}</span>
           </span>
         </div>
         <Bar pct={cpu.usage} color={cpuColor(cpu.usage)} />
         <div className="mm-sub mm-load">
-          {t('ssh.monitor.loadavg', { value: cpu.loadavg.map((v) => v.toFixed(1)).join(' / ') })}
+          {tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.loadavg', { value: cpu.loadavg.map((v) => v.toFixed(1)).join(' / ') })}
         </div>
         <HistoryChart data={cpuHist} lineColor="#3fb950" fillColor="rgba(63,185,80,0.15)" height={48} maxY={100} />
       </section>
 
-      <section className="mm-block" aria-label={t('ssh.monitor.mem')}>
+      <section className="mm-block" aria-label={tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.mem')}>
         <div className="mm-block-row">
-          <span className="mm-label">{t('ssh.monitor.mem')}</span>
+          <span className="mm-label">{tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.mem')}</span>
           <span className="mm-mem-size">
             {formatSize(mem.usedMb)} / {formatSize(mem.totalMb)}
           </span>
@@ -248,9 +253,9 @@ export function MonitorPanel({ sessionId }: MonitorPanelProps): React.JSX.Elemen
       </section>
 
       {disks.length > 0 && (
-        <section className="mm-block" aria-label={t('ssh.monitor.disks')}>
+        <section className="mm-block" aria-label={tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.disks')}>
           <div className="mm-block-row">
-            <span className="mm-label">{t('ssh.monitor.disks')}</span>
+            <span className="mm-label">{tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.disks')}</span>
           </div>
           <div className="mm-disks">
             {disks.slice(0, 6).map((d) => {
@@ -273,9 +278,9 @@ export function MonitorPanel({ sessionId }: MonitorPanelProps): React.JSX.Elemen
         </section>
       )}
 
-      <section className="mm-block" aria-label={t('ssh.monitor.net')}>
+      <section className="mm-block" aria-label={tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.net')}>
         <div className="mm-block-row">
-          <span className="mm-label">{t('ssh.monitor.net')}</span>
+          <span className="mm-label">{tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.net')}</span>
           <div className="mm-net">
             <span className="mm-net-item mm-rx">
               <span className="mm-arrow mm-up">↓</span>
@@ -296,7 +301,7 @@ export function MonitorPanel({ sessionId }: MonitorPanelProps): React.JSX.Elemen
       </section>
 
       <footer className="mm-footer">
-        {t('ssh.monitor.uptime')} <span className="mm-uptime">{humanizeUptime(sample.uptimeSec)}</span>
+        {tFor(language, 'ssh.monitor.uptime')} <span className="mm-uptime">{humanizeUptime(language, sample.uptimeSec)}</span>
       </footer>
     </div>
   )
diff --git a/src/renderer/src/sftp/FilePanel.tsx b/src/renderer/src/sftp/FilePanel.tsx
index 1c00057..06a27d5 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/sftp/FilePanel.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/sftp/FilePanel.tsx
@@ -19,7 +19,8 @@ import {
 import { App, Button, Checkbox, Dropdown, Input, Modal, Popconfirm, Tooltip } from 'antd'
 import type { MenuProps } from 'antd'
 import type { SftpEntry, TransferProgressEvent } from '@shared/sftp'
-import { getLanguage, t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { DEFAULT_LANGUAGE, tFor, type Language } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { useSettingsStore } from '@renderer/settings/store'
 import './sftp.css'
 
 /** Remote file browser for one SSH session (M4). */
@@ -89,9 +90,9 @@ function bitsToOctal(bits: PermBits): string {
   return special > 0 ? `${special}${perms}` : perms
 }
 
-/** t() falls back to the key itself when a translation is missing. */
-function tOr(key: string, fallback: string): string {
-  const value = t(key)
+/** tFor() falls back to the key itself when a translation is missing. */
+function tOr(lang: Language, key: string, fallback: string): string {
+  const value = tFor(lang, key)
   return value === key ? fallback : value
 }
 
@@ -126,12 +127,20 @@ function ownerLabel(e: SftpEntry): string {
 }
 
 /** Permission-grid labels are resolved per render so they follow the language. */
-function permRowLabels(): string[] {
-  return [t('ssh.file.permRowOwner'), t('ssh.file.permRowGroup'), t('ssh.file.permRowOther')]
+function permRowLabels(lang: Language): string[] {
+  return [
+    tFor(lang, 'ssh.file.permRowOwner'),
+    tFor(lang, 'ssh.file.permRowGroup'),
+    tFor(lang, 'ssh.file.permRowOther')
+  ]
 }
 
-function permColLabels(): string[] {
-  return [t('ssh.file.permColRead'), t('ssh.file.permColWrite'), t('ssh.file.permColExec')]
+function permColLabels(lang: Language): string[] {
+  return [
+    tFor(lang, 'ssh.file.permColRead'),
+    tFor(lang, 'ssh.file.permColWrite'),
+    tFor(lang, 'ssh.file.permColExec')
+  ]
 }
 
 /**
@@ -196,9 +205,11 @@ interface PermissionModalProps {
   entry: SftpEntry | null
   onClose: () => void
   onSaved: () => void
+  /** from FilePanel, which owns the language subscription — see there */
+  language: Language
 }
 
-function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved }: PermissionModalProps): React.JSX.Element {
+function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved, language }: PermissionModalProps): React.JSX.Element {
   const { message } = App.useApp()
   const [bits, setBits] = useState<PermBits>(emptyBits)
   const [octal, setOctal] = useState('')
@@ -208,8 +219,8 @@ function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved }: Permissio
   const hasUidGid = entry != null && (entry.uid != null || entry.gid != null)
   /** lstat failed while listing → no mode to compare against or preserve. */
   const modeKnown = Boolean(entry?.mode)
-  const rowLabels = permRowLabels()
-  const colLabels = permColLabels()
+  const rowLabels = permRowLabels(language)
+  const colLabels = permColLabels(language)
 
   const modeStr = useMemo(() => {
     if (!entry) return { type: '-', str: '---------' }
@@ -302,7 +313,7 @@ function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved }: Permissio
           await window.api.chownRemote(sessionId, entry.path, u, g)
         }
         if (modeChanged || ownerChanged) {
-          message.success(t('ssh.file.permApplied'))
+          message.success(tFor(language, 'ssh.file.permApplied'))
         }
         onClose()
         onSaved()
@@ -316,13 +327,13 @@ function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved }: Permissio
 
   return (
     <Modal
-      title={t('ssh.file.permTitle', { name: entry?.name ?? '' })}
+      title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.permTitle', { name: entry?.name ?? '' })}
       open={open}
       onOk={onSave}
       onCancel={onClose}
       confirmLoading={saving}
-      okText={t('common.save')}
-      cancelText={t('common.cancel')}
+      okText={tFor(language, 'common.save')}
+      cancelText={tFor(language, 'common.cancel')}
       okButtonProps={{ disabled: idInvalid(uid) || idInvalid(gid) }}
       width={380}
     >
@@ -355,11 +366,11 @@ function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved }: Permissio
         </div>
 
         <div className="sftp-perm-octal-input">
-          <span className="sftp-perm-label">{t('ssh.file.octal')}</span>
+          <span className="sftp-perm-label">{tFor(language, 'ssh.file.octal')}</span>
           <Input
             value={octal}
             onChange={(e) => applyOctal(e.target.value)}
-            placeholder={t('ssh.file.octalPlaceholder')}
+            placeholder={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.octalPlaceholder')}
             addonAfter={bitsToModeStr(modeStr.type, bits)}
           />
         </div>
@@ -370,7 +381,7 @@ function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved }: Permissio
             <Input
               value={uid}
               onChange={(e) => setUid(e.target.value)}
-              placeholder={hasUidGid ? t('ssh.file.keepEmpty') : '0'}
+              placeholder={hasUidGid ? tFor(language, 'ssh.file.keepEmpty') : '0'}
             />
           </div>
           <div className="sftp-perm-own-field">
@@ -378,14 +389,14 @@ function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved }: Permissio
             <Input
               value={gid}
               onChange={(e) => setGid(e.target.value)}
-              placeholder={hasUidGid ? t('ssh.file.keepEmpty') : '0'}
+              placeholder={hasUidGid ? tFor(language, 'ssh.file.keepEmpty') : '0'}
             />
           </div>
         </div>
-        <div className="sftp-perm-hint">{t('ssh.file.ownerHint')}</div>
-        {entry && !modeKnown && <div className="sftp-perm-hint">{t('ssh.file.modeUnavailable')}</div>}
+        <div className="sftp-perm-hint">{tFor(language, 'ssh.file.ownerHint')}</div>
+        {entry && !modeKnown && <div className="sftp-perm-hint">{tFor(language, 'ssh.file.modeUnavailable')}</div>}
         {(idInvalid(uid) || idInvalid(gid)) && (
-          <div className="sftp-perm-hint">{t('main.sftp.invalidUidGid')}</div>
+          <div className="sftp-perm-hint">{tFor(language, 'main.sftp.invalidUidGid')}</div>
         )}
       </div>
     </Modal>
@@ -397,8 +408,15 @@ function PermissionModal({ open, sessionId, entry, onClose, onSaved }: Permissio
  * lifetime, so dragging the SSH divider (which re-renders SshBottomPanel on
  * every pointermove) no longer re-renders the whole file browser. Switching to
  * a different directory still works — it is internal state.
+ *
+ * The stable prop is also why the language has to be subscribed here: memo
+ * blocks the parent's re-render, and the panel lives in dockview's own render
+ * slot on top of that, so nothing else would ever re-render it. Every string
+ * below therefore goes through `tFor(language, …)` — `t()` would read the
+ * module-level language of whatever render last touched it.
  */
 export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps): React.JSX.Element {
+  const language = useSettingsStore((s) => s.settings.system.language ?? DEFAULT_LANGUAGE)
   const { message, modal } = App.useApp()
   const [dir, setDir] = useState('/')
   const [entries, setEntries] = useState<SftpEntry[]>([])
@@ -640,9 +658,9 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
           startUpload(files)
           return
         }
-        const desc = tOr('ssh.file.overwriteDesc', '')
+        const desc = tOr(language, 'ssh.file.overwriteDesc', '')
         modal.confirm({
-          title: tOr('ssh.file.overwriteTitle', t('ssh.file.uploadFile')),
+          title: tOr(language, 'ssh.file.overwriteTitle', tFor(language, 'ssh.file.uploadFile')),
           content: (
             <div>
               {existing.map((name) => (
@@ -651,9 +669,9 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
               {desc && <div>{desc}</div>}
             </div>
           ),
-          okText: t('common.ok'),
+          okText: tFor(language, 'common.ok'),
           okButtonProps: { danger: true },
-          cancelText: t('common.cancel'),
+          cancelText: tFor(language, 'common.cancel'),
           onOk: () => startUpload(files)
         })
       } catch (err) {
@@ -721,16 +739,13 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
     void (async () => {
       try {
         await navigator.clipboard.writeText(entry.path)
-        message.success(t('ssh.file.pathCopied'))
+        message.success(tFor(language, 'ssh.file.pathCopied'))
       } catch {
-        message.error(t('ssh.file.copyPathFailed'))
+        message.error(tFor(language, 'ssh.file.copyPathFailed'))
       }
     })()
   }
 
-  /** Active language; a dep of the menu below so translated labels refresh. */
-  const language = getLanguage()
-
   /** opens the mkdir modal in create-a-file mode (no-op: new files unsupported) */
   const menu: MenuProps = useMemo(() => {
     const target = menuTarget
@@ -738,51 +753,51 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
     const canAction = target != null
     return {
       items: [
-        { key: 'refresh', label: t('ssh.file.refresh'), icon: <ReloadOutlined /> },
+        { key: 'refresh', label: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.refresh'), icon: <ReloadOutlined /> },
         { type: 'divider' },
         {
           key: 'open',
-          label: isDir ? t('ssh.file.open') : t('ssh.file.download'),
+          label: isDir ? tFor(language, 'ssh.file.open') : tFor(language, 'ssh.file.download'),
           icon: isDir ? <FolderOpenOutlined /> : <DownloadOutlined />,
           disabled: !canAction
         },
         {
           key: 'download',
-          label: t('ssh.file.download'),
+          label: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.download'),
           icon: <DownloadOutlined />,
           disabled: !canAction || Boolean(isDir)
         },
-        { key: 'upload', label: t('ssh.file.upload'), icon: <UploadOutlined /> },
+        { key: 'upload', label: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.upload'), icon: <UploadOutlined /> },
         {
           key: 'rename',
-          label: t('ssh.file.rename'),
+          label: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.rename'),
           icon: <FormOutlined />,
           disabled: !canAction
         },
         {
           type: 'submenu',
           key: 'new',
-          label: t('ssh.file.new'),
+          label: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.new'),
           icon: <FileAddOutlined />,
           children: [
-            { key: 'mkdir', label: t('ssh.file.newFolder'), icon: <FolderAddOutlined /> }
+            { key: 'mkdir', label: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.newFolder'), icon: <FolderAddOutlined /> }
             // 新建文件：无现成 SFTP 创建文件 API（main 仅 mkdir/rename/chmod/chown），不做
           ]
         },
         { type: 'divider' },
         {
           key: 'copyPath',
-          label: t('ssh.file.copyPath'),
+          label: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.copyPath'),
           icon: <CopyOutlined />,
           disabled: !canAction
         },
         {
           key: 'permission',
-          label: t('ssh.file.permission'),
+          label: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.permission'),
           icon: <SafetyOutlined />,
           disabled: !canAction
         },
-        { key: 'delete', label: t('common.delete'), icon: <DeleteOutlined />, danger: true, disabled: !canAction }
+        { key: 'delete', label: tFor(language, 'common.delete'), icon: <DeleteOutlined />, danger: true, disabled: !canAction }
       ],
       onClick: ({ key }) => {
         const entry = menuTarget
@@ -808,11 +823,11 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
           setPermOpen(true)
         } else if (key === 'delete') {
           modal.confirm({
-            title: t('ssh.file.deleteTitle'),
+            title: tFor(language, 'ssh.file.deleteTitle'),
             content: entry ? `${entry.name}（${entry.path}）` : undefined,
-            okText: t('common.delete'),
+            okText: tFor(language, 'common.delete'),
             okButtonProps: { danger: true },
-            cancelText: t('common.cancel'),
+            cancelText: tFor(language, 'common.cancel'),
             onOk: () =>
               new Promise<void>((resolve, reject) => {
                 if (!entry) {
@@ -864,7 +879,7 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
           {e.isDir ? '' : fmtSize(e.size)}
         </span>
         <span className="sftp-time">{fmtTime(e.mtime)}</span>
-        <span className="sftp-mode" title={e.mode ?? t('ssh.file.modeUnavailable')}>
+        <span className="sftp-mode" title={e.mode ?? tFor(language, 'ssh.file.modeUnavailable')}>
           {e.mode ?? '----------'}
         </span>
         <span className="sftp-owner" title={`UID ${e.uid ?? '—'} / GID ${e.gid ?? '—'}`}>
@@ -888,7 +903,7 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
   return (
     <div className="sftp-panel" style={scaleVars}>
       <div className="sftp-toolbar">
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.up')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.up')}>
           <Button
             type="text"
             size="small"
@@ -897,10 +912,10 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
             onClick={() => void refresh(parent)}
           />
         </Tooltip>
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.refresh')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.refresh')}>
           <Button type="text" size="small" icon={<ReloadOutlined />} onClick={() => void refresh(dir)} />
         </Tooltip>
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.newFolder')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.newFolder')}>
           <Button
             type="text"
             size="small"
@@ -911,10 +926,10 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
             }}
           />
         </Tooltip>
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.uploadFile')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.uploadFile')}>
           <Button type="text" size="small" icon={<UploadOutlined />} onClick={doUpload} />
         </Tooltip>
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.downloadSelected')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.downloadSelected')}>
           <Button
             type="text"
             size="small"
@@ -923,7 +938,7 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
             onClick={() => selected && doDownload(selected)}
           />
         </Tooltip>
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.rename')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.rename')}>
           <Button
             type="text"
             size="small"
@@ -935,7 +950,7 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
             }}
           />
         </Tooltip>
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.permOwner')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.permOwner')}>
           <Button
             type="text"
             size="small"
@@ -945,15 +960,15 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
           />
         </Tooltip>
         <Popconfirm
-          title={t('ssh.file.deleteTitle')}
-          okText={t('common.delete')}
-          cancelText={t('common.cancel')}
+          title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.deleteTitle')}
+          okText={tFor(language, 'common.delete')}
+          cancelText={tFor(language, 'common.cancel')}
           onConfirm={doDelete}
         >
           <Button type="text" size="small" icon={<DeleteOutlined />} disabled={!selected} danger />
         </Popconfirm>
         <span className="sftp-toolbar-gap" />
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.zoomOut')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.zoomOut')}>
           <Button
             type="text"
             size="small"
@@ -962,7 +977,7 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
             onClick={() => adjustScale(-FONT_SCALE_STEP)}
           />
         </Tooltip>
-        <Tooltip title={t('ssh.file.zoomIn')}>
+        <Tooltip title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.zoomIn')}>
           <Button
             type="text"
             size="small"
@@ -1024,16 +1039,16 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
           >
             <div className="sftp-head">
               <span className="sftp-head-cell" />
-              {headCell('name', 'sftp-col-name', t('ssh.file.colName'))}
-              {headCell('size', 'sftp-col-size', t('ssh.file.colSize'))}
-              {headCell('mtime', 'sftp-col-time', t('ssh.file.colModified'))}
-              <span className="sftp-head-cell sftp-col-mode">{t('ssh.file.colPerm')}</span>
-              <span className="sftp-head-cell sftp-col-owner">{t('ssh.file.colOwner')}</span>
+              {headCell('name', 'sftp-col-name', tFor(language, 'ssh.file.colName'))}
+              {headCell('size', 'sftp-col-size', tFor(language, 'ssh.file.colSize'))}
+              {headCell('mtime', 'sftp-col-time', tFor(language, 'ssh.file.colModified'))}
+              <span className="sftp-head-cell sftp-col-mode">{tFor(language, 'ssh.file.colPerm')}</span>
+              <span className="sftp-head-cell sftp-col-owner">{tFor(language, 'ssh.file.colOwner')}</span>
             </div>
             {loading && entriesSorted.length === 0 && (
-              <div className="sftp-empty">{t('ssh.file.loading')}</div>
+              <div className="sftp-empty">{tFor(language, 'ssh.file.loading')}</div>
             )}
-            {!loading && entriesSorted.length === 0 && <div className="sftp-empty">{t('ssh.file.empty')}</div>}
+            {!loading && entriesSorted.length === 0 && <div className="sftp-empty">{tFor(language, 'ssh.file.empty')}</div>}
             {virtualized ? (
               <div className="sftp-list-virtual" style={{ height: entriesSorted.length * rowHeight }}>
                 <div
@@ -1056,31 +1071,32 @@ export const FilePanel = memo(function FilePanel({ sessionId }: FilePanelProps):
         entry={selected}
         onClose={() => setPermOpen(false)}
         onSaved={() => void refresh(dir)}
+        language={language}
       />
       <Modal
-        title={t('ssh.file.newFolder')}
+        title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.newFolder')}
         open={mkdirOpen}
         onOk={doMkdir}
         onCancel={() => setMkdirOpen(false)}
-        okText={t('ssh.file.create')}
-        cancelText={t('common.cancel')}
+        okText={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.create')}
+        cancelText={tFor(language, 'common.cancel')}
         width={360}
       >
         <Input
           autoFocus
-          placeholder={t('ssh.file.folderName')}
+          placeholder={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.folderName')}
           value={inputValue}
           onChange={(e) => setInputValue(e.target.value)}
           onPressEnter={doMkdir}
         />
       </Modal>
       <Modal
-        title={t('ssh.file.renameTitle', { name: selected?.name ?? '' })}
+        title={tFor(language, 'ssh.file.renameTitle', { name: selected?.name ?? '' })}
         open={renameOpen}
         onOk={doRename}
         onCancel={() => setRenameOpen(false)}
-        okText={t('common.ok')}
-        cancelText={t('common.cancel')}
+        okText={tFor(language, 'common.ok')}
+        cancelText={tFor(language, 'common.cancel')}
         width={360}
       >
         <Input
diff --git a/src/renderer/src/sftp/TransferPanel.tsx b/src/renderer/src/sftp/TransferPanel.tsx
index 1b9e326..c435677 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/sftp/TransferPanel.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/sftp/TransferPanel.tsx
@@ -1,7 +1,8 @@
 import { memo, useCallback, useEffect, useRef, useState } from 'react'
 import { CloseOutlined } from '@ant-design/icons'
 import type { TransferKind, TransferProgressEvent, TransferState } from '@shared/sftp'
-import { t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { DEFAULT_LANGUAGE, tFor } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { useSettingsStore } from '@renderer/settings/store'
 
 /** One aggregated transfer row in the overlay (the per-event state string is
  *  the shared `TransferState`). */
@@ -24,8 +25,16 @@ interface TransferRowProps {
  * Memoized on the entry object: the progress channel replaces only the entry a
  * transfer owns, so a busy multi-transfer overlay re-renders the advancing row
  * and leaves the others alone.
+ *
+ * That memo is also why the row subscribes to the language itself: a language
+ * switch changes no prop here, so nothing else would ever re-render it, and
+ * `t()` would keep serving whatever the module-level language was. A row count
+ * is bounded by the concurrent transfers, so one subscription per row is
+ * cheaper than threading the language down as a prop (which would defeat the
+ * memo and re-render every row on each progress tick).
  */
 const TransferRow = memo(function TransferRow({ id, entry, onDismiss }: TransferRowProps): React.JSX.Element {
+  const language = useSettingsStore((s) => s.settings.system.language ?? DEFAULT_LANGUAGE)
   const pct =
     entry.totalBytes > 0
       ? Math.min(100, Math.round((entry.bytes / entry.totalBytes) * 100))
@@ -37,18 +46,18 @@ const TransferRow = memo(function TransferRow({ id, entry, onDismiss }: Transfer
       <div className="sftp-transfer-head">
         <span className="sftp-transfer-title">
           {entry.state === 'error'
-            ? t('panels.transfer.failed')
+            ? tFor(language, 'panels.transfer.failed')
             : entry.state === 'cancelled'
-              ? t('panels.transfer.cancelled')
+              ? tFor(language, 'panels.transfer.cancelled')
               : entry.state === 'done'
-                ? t('panels.transfer.done')
+                ? tFor(language, 'panels.transfer.done')
                 : entry.kind === 'upload'
-                  ? t('panels.transfer.uploading')
+                  ? tFor(language, 'panels.transfer.uploading')
                   : entry.kind === 'download'
-                    ? t('panels.transfer.downloading')
+                    ? tFor(language, 'panels.transfer.downloading')
                     : entry.kind === 'zmodem-upload'
-                      ? t('panels.transfer.zmodemUploading')
-                      : t('panels.transfer.zmodemDownloading')}
+                      ? tFor(language, 'panels.transfer.zmodemUploading')
+                      : tFor(language, 'panels.transfer.zmodemDownloading')}
         </span>
         {/* Only the SFTP engine's own transfers can be cancelled; zmodem
             runs in a separate engine that ignores cancelTransfer. */}
@@ -58,7 +67,7 @@ const TransferRow = memo(function TransferRow({ id, entry, onDismiss }: Transfer
             className="sftp-transfer-cancel"
             onClick={() => window.api.cancelTransfer(id)}
           >
-            {t('common.cancel')}
+            {tFor(language, 'common.cancel')}
           </button>
         )}
         {/* Cancelled rows dismiss themselves after 3s, but one that also
diff --git a/src/renderer/src/terminal/TerminalView.tsx b/src/renderer/src/terminal/TerminalView.tsx
index 30730fa..a3c3b67 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/terminal/TerminalView.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/terminal/TerminalView.tsx
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ import { SearchAddon } from '@xterm/addon-search'
 import '@xterm/xterm/css/xterm.css'
 import { ClearOutlined, CopyOutlined, ExportOutlined, FolderOpenOutlined, PauseOutlined, SearchOutlined, SelectOutlined, SnippetsOutlined, SoundOutlined } from '@ant-design/icons'
 import { Checkbox, Modal } from 'antd'
-import { t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { DEFAULT_LANGUAGE, tFor, type Language } from '@shared/i18n'
 import { getThemeById } from '@shared/theme'
 import type { CommandItem } from '@shared/commands'
 import { highlightModeOf, type TerminalSettings } from '@shared/settings'
@@ -113,7 +113,25 @@ interface SearchBarProps {
   onNext: () => void
   onClose: () => void
   enabled: boolean
-  result: string
+  result: SearchResult
+  /** Subscribed in TerminalView; passed down so the bar's own labels follow a
+   *  language switch (a module-level `t()` would be read at the wrong moment). */
+  language: Language
+}
+
+/**
+ * Result slot of the search bar: the addon's match counter, or a manual find's
+ * verdict. Kept as a tag rather than as a rendered string because both
+ * producers run outside the render (a click handler and an addon event), so a
+ * stored string would keep the language it was built in for as long as it is
+ * on screen.
+ */
+type SearchResult = { index: number; count: number } | 'found' | 'notFound' | null
+
+function searchResultText(result: SearchResult, language: Language): string {
+  if (result === null) return ''
+  if (typeof result === 'object') return `${result.index}/${result.count}`
+  return tFor(language, result === 'found' ? 'terminal.search.found' : 'terminal.search.notFound')
 }
 
 /** M5: cap for the floating completion popup height in px. */
@@ -125,14 +143,14 @@ function estimatePopupHeight(itemCount: number): number {
   return Math.min(SUGGEST_POPUP_H, Math.max(70, itemCount * 22 + 28))
 }
 
-function SearchBar({ value, onChange, onPrev, onNext, onClose, enabled, result }: SearchBarProps): React.JSX.Element {
+function SearchBar({ value, onChange, onPrev, onNext, onClose, enabled, result, language }: SearchBarProps): React.JSX.Element {
   return (
     <div className="term-searchbar">
       <input
         className="term-searchbar-input"
         type="text"
         value={value}
-        placeholder={t('terminal.search.placeholder')}
+        placeholder={tFor(language, 'terminal.search.placeholder')}
         spellCheck={false}
         autoFocus
         onChange={(e) => onChange(e.target.value)}
@@ -142,10 +160,10 @@ function SearchBar({ value, onChange, onPrev, onNext, onClose, enabled, result }
           else if (e.key === 'Escape') onClose()
         }}
       />
-      <button type="button" className="term-searchbar-btn" disabled={!enabled} onClick={onPrev}>{t('terminal.search.prev')}</button>
-      <button type="button" className="term-searchbar-btn" disabled={!enabled} onClick={onNext}>{t('terminal.search.next')}</button>
-      <span className="term-searchbar-count">{result}</span>
-      <button type="button" className="term-searchbar-btn" onClick={onClose}>{t('common.close')}</button>
+      <button type="button" className="term-searchbar-btn" disabled={!enabled} onClick={onPrev}>{tFor(language, 'terminal.search.prev')}</button>
+      <button type="button" className="term-searchbar-btn" disabled={!enabled} onClick={onNext}>{tFor(language, 'terminal.search.next')}</button>
+      <span className="term-searchbar-count">{searchResultText(result, language)}</span>
+      <button type="button" className="term-searchbar-btn" onClick={onClose}>{tFor(language, 'common.close')}</button>
     </div>
   )
 }
@@ -299,6 +317,12 @@ export function TerminalView({
     }))
   )
   const rendererMode = useSettingsStore((s) => s.settings.terminal.rendererMode)
+  // dockview owns this component's render slot, so an App→Workspace re-render
+  // never reaches it: the language must be subscribed here and passed to
+  // `tFor` explicitly, or every label would keep the language it was first
+  // rendered with. One single-field selector — kept out of the five shallow
+  // groups below so a language write cannot re-run their work.
+  const language = useSettingsStore((s) => s.settings.system.language ?? DEFAULT_LANGUAGE)
   const highlightOpts = useSettingsStore(
     useShallow((s) => ({
       mode: highlightModeOf(s.settings.terminal.highlightMode),
@@ -441,7 +465,7 @@ export function TerminalView({
 
   const [searchOpen, setSearchOpen] = useState(false)
   const [searchTerm, setSearchTerm] = useState('')
-  const [resultInfo, setResultInfo] = useState('')
+  const [searchResult, setSearchResult] = useState<SearchResult>(null)
   // Right-click context menu: position + whether a selection existed at open
   // time (decides if 复制 is enabled).
   const [menuPos, setMenuPos] = useState<{ x: number; y: number } | null>(null)
@@ -573,7 +597,7 @@ export function TerminalView({
     searchOpenRef.current = false
     searchRef.current?.clearDecorations()
     setSearchOpen(false)
-    setResultInfo('')
+    setSearchResult(null)
     termRef.current?.focus()
   }, [])
 
@@ -585,7 +609,9 @@ export function TerminalView({
       dir === 1
         ? addon.findNext(q, { decorations: SEARCH_DECORATIONS })
         : addon.findPrevious(q, { decorations: SEARCH_DECORATIONS })
-    setResultInfo(found ? t('terminal.search.found') : t('terminal.search.notFound'))
+    // Store the verdict, not the string: this runs from a click handler, and a
+    // stored translation would stay in the language it was produced in.
+    setSearchResult(found ? 'found' : 'notFound')
   }, [])
 
   /** Record a submitted command line; cd-style lines also update cwd memory. */
@@ -837,7 +863,12 @@ export function TerminalView({
     const searchAddon = new SearchAddon()
     searchAddon.onDidChangeResults((ev) => {
       if (searchOpenRef.current && searchTermRef.current.trim()) {
-        setResultInfo(`${Math.max(ev.resultIndex + 1, 0)}/${ev.resultCount}`)
+        // Keep the identity of an unchanged counter: this fires on every search
+        // step in a busy pane, and React bails out only on an unchanged value.
+        const next = { index: Math.max(ev.resultIndex + 1, 0), count: ev.resultCount }
+        setSearchResult((prev) =>
+          typeof prev === 'object' && prev?.index === next.index && prev.count === next.count ? prev : next
+        )
       }
     })
     term.loadAddon(searchAddon)
@@ -1300,7 +1331,7 @@ export function TerminalView({
               onClick={() => runMenuAction(() => void copySelection())}
             >
               <CopyOutlined />
-              <span className="term-menu-label">{t('common.copy')}</span>
+              <span className="term-menu-label">{tFor(language, 'common.copy')}</span>
               <kbd>Ctrl+Shift+C</kbd>
             </button>
             <button
@@ -1310,23 +1341,23 @@ export function TerminalView({
               onClick={() => runMenuAction(() => void pasteFromClipboard())}
             >
               <SnippetsOutlined />
-              <span className="term-menu-label">{t('common.paste')}</span>
+              <span className="term-menu-label">{tFor(language, 'common.paste')}</span>
               <kbd>Ctrl+Shift+V</kbd>
             </button>
             <div className="term-menu-sep" />
             <button type="button" className="term-menu-item" onClick={() => runMenuAction(openSearch)}>
               <SearchOutlined />
-              <span className="term-menu-label">{t('terminal.menu.find')}</span>
+              <span className="term-menu-label">{tFor(language, 'terminal.menu.find')}</span>
               <kbd>Ctrl+F</kbd>
             </button>
             <button type="button" className="term-menu-item" onClick={() => runMenuAction(() => termRef.current?.selectAll())}>
               <SelectOutlined />
-              <span className="term-menu-label">{t('terminal.menu.selectAll')}</span>
+              <span className="term-menu-label">{tFor(language, 'terminal.menu.selectAll')}</span>
               <kbd />
             </button>
             <button type="button" className="term-menu-item" onClick={() => runMenuAction(() => termRef.current?.clear())}>
               <ClearOutlined />
-              <span className="term-menu-label">{t('terminal.menu.clear')}</span>
+              <span className="term-menu-label">{tFor(language, 'terminal.menu.clear')}</span>
               <kbd />
             </button>
           </div>
@@ -1340,7 +1371,8 @@ export function TerminalView({
           onNext={() => search(1)}
           onClose={closeSearch}
           enabled={searchTerm.trim().length > 0}
-          result={resultInfo}
+          result={searchResult}
+          language={language}
         />
       )}
       <div className="term-recbar">
@@ -1348,8 +1380,8 @@ export function TerminalView({
           <button
             type="button"
             className={`term-rec-btn${recording ? ' is-recording' : ''}`}
-            title={recording ? t('terminal.rec.stopLog') : t('terminal.rec.startLog')}
-            aria-label={recording ? t('terminal.rec.stop') : t('terminal.rec.start')}
+            title={recording ? tFor(language, 'terminal.rec.stopLog') : tFor(language, 'terminal.rec.startLog')}
+            aria-label={recording ? tFor(language, 'terminal.rec.stop') : tFor(language, 'terminal.rec.start')}
             onClick={() => {
               if (recording) void handleLogStop()
               else void handleLogStart()
@@ -1362,8 +1394,8 @@ export function TerminalView({
           <button
             type="button"
             className="term-rec-btn"
-            title={t('terminal.rec.openLogs')}
-            aria-label={t('terminal.rec.openLogs')}
+            title={tFor(language, 'terminal.rec.openLogs')}
+            aria-label={tFor(language, 'terminal.rec.openLogs')}
             onClick={() => window.api.openLogsDir()}
           >
             <FolderOpenOutlined />
@@ -1373,8 +1405,8 @@ export function TerminalView({
           <button
             type="button"
             className="term-rec-btn"
-            title={t('terminal.rec.openCwd')}
-            aria-label={t('terminal.rec.openCwd')}
+            title={tFor(language, 'terminal.rec.openCwd')}
+            aria-label={tFor(language, 'terminal.rec.openCwd')}
             onClick={() => {
               const dir = getSessionCwd(sessionId)
               if (dir) void window.api.openDirectory(dir)
@@ -1386,29 +1418,29 @@ export function TerminalView({
       </div>
       <Modal
         open={paste !== null}
-        title={t('terminal.paste.title')}
-        okText={t('common.paste')}
-        cancelText={t('common.cancel')}
+        title={tFor(language, 'terminal.paste.title')}
+        okText={tFor(language, 'common.paste')}
+        cancelText={tFor(language, 'common.cancel')}
         width={420}
         maskClosable={false}
         onOk={acceptPaste}
         onCancel={cancelPaste}
       >
         <div className="term-paste-confirm">
-          <p>{t('terminal.paste.message')}</p>
+          <p>{tFor(language, 'terminal.paste.message')}</p>
           <Checkbox
             checked={paste?.noPrompt ?? false}
             onChange={(e) => setPaste((prev) => (prev ? { ...prev, noPrompt: e.target.checked } : prev))}
           >
-            {t('terminal.paste.noPrompt')}
+            {tFor(language, 'terminal.paste.noPrompt')}
           </Checkbox>
           <Checkbox
             checked={paste?.disableDetection ?? false}
             onChange={(e) => setPaste((prev) => (prev ? { ...prev, disableDetection: e.target.checked } : prev))}
           >
-            {t('terminal.paste.disableDetection')}
+            {tFor(language, 'terminal.paste.disableDetection')}
           </Checkbox>
-          <p className="term-paste-confirm-hint">{t('terminal.paste.hint')}</p>
+          <p className="term-paste-confirm-hint">{tFor(language, 'terminal.paste.hint')}</p>
         </div>
       </Modal>
       {/* Relative-positioned wrapper around the xterm surface: the suggestion
@@ -1436,7 +1468,7 @@ export function TerminalView({
                 </button>
               ))}
             </div>
-            <div className="term-suggest-hint">{t('terminal.suggest.hint')}</div>
+            <div className="term-suggest-hint">{tFor(language, 'terminal.suggest.hint')}</div>
           </div>
         )}
         <div className="terminal-view-dock" ref={hostRef}>
@@ -1459,8 +1491,8 @@ export function TerminalView({
           )}
           {dead && (
             <div className="term-dead-mask">
-              <div>{t('terminal.dead.message', { code: exitCode })}</div>
-              <button type="button" className="term-dead-btn" onClick={() => onCloseRef.current()}>{t('common.close')}</button>
+              <div>{tFor(language, 'terminal.dead.message', { code: exitCode })}</div>
+              <button type="button" className="term-dead-btn" onClick={() => onCloseRef.current()}>{tFor(language, 'common.close')}</button>
             </div>
           )}
         </div>
diff --git a/src/renderer/src/workspace/SshBottomPanel.tsx b/src/renderer/src/workspace/SshBottomPanel.tsx
index 5b715b6..c36dec7 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/workspace/SshBottomPanel.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/workspace/SshBottomPanel.tsx
@@ -1,18 +1,21 @@
 import { useCallback, useEffect, useRef, useState, type ReactNode } from 'react'
 
-import { t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { tFor, type Language } from '@shared/i18n'
 import { FilePanel } from '../sftp/FilePanel'
 
 export interface SshBottomPanelProps {
   sessionId: string
   /** The terminal surface rendered in the flexible top region. */
   terminal: ReactNode
+  /** From TerminalPanel, the dockview-rendered parent that owns the language
+   *  subscription — this panel only re-renders along with it. */
+  language: Language
 }
 
 /** File browser height in px — clamped to [120, 60% of container height]. */
 const MIN_HEIGHT = 120
 
-export function SshBottomPanel({ sessionId, terminal }: SshBottomPanelProps): React.JSX.Element {
+export function SshBottomPanel({ sessionId, terminal, language }: SshBottomPanelProps): React.JSX.Element {
   /** Current file-browser height in px. */
   const [filesHeight, setFilesHeight] = useState<number>(220)
   /** Divider drag in flight — drives the accent highlight. */
@@ -82,7 +85,7 @@ export function SshBottomPanel({ sessionId, terminal }: SshBottomPanelProps): Re
         className={'ssh-bottom-divider' + (resizing ? ' is-resizing' : '')}
         role="separator"
         aria-orientation="horizontal"
-        aria-label={t('ssh.bottomPanel.resize')}
+        aria-label={tFor(language, 'ssh.bottomPanel.resize')}
         onPointerDown={onDividerPointerDown}
         onPointerMove={onDividerPointerMove}
         onPointerUp={endDrag}
diff --git a/src/renderer/src/workspace/SshHostBadge.tsx b/src/renderer/src/workspace/SshHostBadge.tsx
index b33071c..6b91191 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/workspace/SshHostBadge.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/workspace/SshHostBadge.tsx
@@ -1,17 +1,22 @@
-import { t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { tFor, type Language } from '@shared/i18n'
 
 /**
  * Small capsule badge showing the SSH host label (e.g. `root@36.151.147.123`)
  * on an SSH terminal tab. Host labels are often long, so the display string is
  * truncated with an ellipsis rather than wrapped; the full label is always
  * available via the native `title` tooltip and the tab-level tooltip.
+ *
+ * `language` comes from the tab component instead of a subscription of its own:
+ * the badge lives in dockview's tab render slot, so it follows TerminalTab's
+ * re-renders — but `t()` would then read the module-level language, which is
+ * only as fresh as the last App render.
  */
-export function SshHostBadge({ label }: { label: string }): React.JSX.Element {
+export function SshHostBadge({ label, language }: { label: string; language: Language }): React.JSX.Element {
   return (
     <span
       className="ssh-host-badge"
       title={label}
-      aria-label={t('ssh.hostBadge.aria', { label })}
+      aria-label={tFor(language, 'ssh.hostBadge.aria', { label })}
     >
       {label}
     </span>
diff --git a/src/renderer/src/workspace/TerminalPanel.tsx b/src/renderer/src/workspace/TerminalPanel.tsx
index 93f3b9c..6d1a24f 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/workspace/TerminalPanel.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/workspace/TerminalPanel.tsx
@@ -3,7 +3,8 @@ import type { IDockviewPanelProps } from 'dockview-react'
 import { Button } from 'antd'
 import { AreaChartOutlined } from '@ant-design/icons'
 
-import { t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { tFor, DEFAULT_LANGUAGE } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { useSettingsStore } from '@renderer/settings/store'
 import { PanelErrorBoundary } from '../ErrorBoundary'
 import { TerminalView } from '../terminal/TerminalView'
 import { MonitorPanel } from '../monitor/MonitorPanel'
@@ -42,6 +43,12 @@ export function TerminalPanel({ params, api, onSessionDead }: TerminalPanelProps
   /** Right sidebar (monitor) visibility for ssh sessions — expanded by default. */
   const [sideOpen, setSideOpen] = useState(true)
 
+  // dockview renders panel content from its own portal slot, so the panel never
+  // re-renders as part of the App→Workspace tree; the language is subscribed
+  // here and handed to `tFor` explicitly rather than read from the module-level
+  // language that `t()` uses.
+  const language = useSettingsStore((s) => s.settings.system.language ?? DEFAULT_LANGUAGE)
+
   // M6 broadcast: keep the session in the broadcast registry while mounted so
   // it can be picked as a target / receive fan-out writes. Registrations are
   // keyed by panel id — an SSH split shows one session in two panes, and
@@ -84,20 +91,20 @@ export function TerminalPanel({ params, api, onSessionDead }: TerminalPanelProps
   // is remounted on retry; the shell (tab, broadcast registration) survives.
   return (
     <div className="workspace-terminal-panel">
-      <PanelErrorBoundary label={t('workspace.error.panelTitle')}>
+      <PanelErrorBoundary label={tFor(language, 'workspace.error.panelTitle')}>
         {isSsh && (
           <Button
             type="text"
             size="small"
             className="workspace-terminal-monitor-toggle"
             icon={<AreaChartOutlined />}
-            aria-label={sideOpen ? t('workspace.panel.hideSidebar') : t('workspace.panel.showSidebar')}
-            title={sideOpen ? t('workspace.panel.hideSidebar') : t('workspace.panel.showSidebar')}
+            aria-label={sideOpen ? tFor(language, 'workspace.panel.hideSidebar') : tFor(language, 'workspace.panel.showSidebar')}
+            title={sideOpen ? tFor(language, 'workspace.panel.hideSidebar') : tFor(language, 'workspace.panel.showSidebar')}
             onClick={() => setSideOpen((prev) => !prev)}
           />
         )}
         <div className="workspace-terminal-split">
-          {isSsh ? <SshBottomPanel sessionId={sessionId} terminal={terminal} /> : terminal}
+          {isSsh ? <SshBottomPanel sessionId={sessionId} terminal={terminal} language={language} /> : terminal}
           {isSsh && sideOpen && (
             <div className="workspace-terminal-side">
               <MonitorPanel sessionId={sessionId} />
diff --git a/src/renderer/src/workspace/TerminalTab.tsx b/src/renderer/src/workspace/TerminalTab.tsx
index 09612e1..75e9587 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/workspace/TerminalTab.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/workspace/TerminalTab.tsx
@@ -6,7 +6,8 @@ import type { IDockviewPanelHeaderProps } from 'dockview-react'
 
 import { useBroadcastStore } from './broadcastStore'
 import { SshHostBadge } from './SshHostBadge'
-import { t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { useSettingsStore } from '@renderer/settings/store'
+import { DEFAULT_LANGUAGE, t, tFor } from '@shared/i18n'
 import type { LayoutMeta } from '@shared/ipc'
 
 export type TerminalTabProps = IDockviewPanelHeaderProps<{
@@ -30,13 +31,19 @@ export function TerminalTab({ api, params }: TerminalTabProps): React.JSX.Elemen
   const [title, setTitle] = useState<string | undefined>(api.title)
   const selfIndex = panel.panels.findIndex((p) => p.api === api)
 
+  // dockview keeps the tab component in its own render slot — a re-render of
+  // App/Workspace does not reach it — so the language has to be subscribed here
+  // and passed to `tFor` explicitly; `t()` would read the module-level language
+  // of whatever render last touched it.
+  const language = useSettingsStore((s) => s.settings.system.language ?? DEFAULT_LANGUAGE)
+
   const isSsh = params?.sessionKind === 'ssh'
   const hostLabel: string | undefined = isSsh ? (params?.hostLabel || title) : undefined
   const tooltip = isSsh
     ? hostLabel && hostLabel !== title
       ? `${title} — ${hostLabel}`
       : (hostLabel || title)
-    : t('workspace.tab.localTerminal')
+    : tFor(language, 'workspace.tab.localTerminal')
   // M6 broadcast: show a badge on tabs that are current broadcast targets.
   const isBroadcastTarget = useBroadcastStore((state) => state.targets.has(params?.sessionId ?? ''))
 
@@ -55,9 +62,9 @@ export function TerminalTab({ api, params }: TerminalTabProps): React.JSX.Elemen
 
   const menu: MenuProps = {
     items: [
-      { key: 'close', label: t('common.close') },
-      { key: 'closeOthers', label: t('workspace.tab.closeOthers'), disabled: panel.panels.length <= 1 },
-      { key: 'closeRight', label: t('workspace.tab.closeRight'), disabled: selfIndex === -1 || selfIndex === panel.panels.length - 1 }
+      { key: 'close', label: tFor(language, 'common.close') },
+      { key: 'closeOthers', label: tFor(language, 'workspace.tab.closeOthers'), disabled: panel.panels.length <= 1 },
+      { key: 'closeRight', label: tFor(language, 'workspace.tab.closeRight'), disabled: selfIndex === -1 || selfIndex === panel.panels.length - 1 }
     ],
     onClick: ({ key }) => {
       if (key === 'close') {
@@ -85,20 +92,20 @@ export function TerminalTab({ api, params }: TerminalTabProps): React.JSX.Elemen
       >
         {isSsh && <CloudServerOutlined className="workspace-terminal-tab-icon" />}
         <span className="workspace-terminal-tab-title">{title}</span>
-        {isSsh && hostLabel && <SshHostBadge label={hostLabel} />}
+        {isSsh && hostLabel && <SshHostBadge label={hostLabel} language={language} />}
         {isBroadcastTarget && (
           <span
             className="workspace-terminal-tab-bcast"
-            title={t('workspace.tab.broadcastTarget')}
-            aria-label={t('workspace.tab.broadcastTarget')}
+            title={tFor(language, 'workspace.tab.broadcastTarget')}
+            aria-label={tFor(language, 'workspace.tab.broadcastTarget')}
           >
-            {t('workspace.tab.broadcastBadge')}
+            {tFor(language, 'workspace.tab.broadcastBadge')}
           </span>
         )}
         <button
           type="button"
           className="workspace-terminal-tab-close"
-          aria-label={t('common.close')}
+          aria-label={tFor(language, 'common.close')}
           onPointerDown={(event) => event.preventDefault()}
           onClick={(event) => {
             event.preventDefault()
diff --git a/src/renderer/src/workspace/Workspace.tsx b/src/renderer/src/workspace/Workspace.tsx
index 3bc5e76..ea45748 100644
--- a/src/renderer/src/workspace/Workspace.tsx
+++ b/src/renderer/src/workspace/Workspace.tsx
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ import type {
 import 'dockview-react/dist/styles/dockview.css'
 
 import { connectPromptFor, type HostKeyPromptEvent, type SshConnection, type SshSecretOverride } from '@shared/connections'
-import { t } from '@shared/i18n'
+import { DEFAULT_LANGUAGE, t, tFor, type Language } from '@shared/i18n'
 import { nextTerminalTitle, retitleAutoTitles } from '@shared/terminalTitle'
 import { ConnectionSidebar } from '../connections/ConnectionSidebar'
 import type { ConnectionSidebarHandle } from '../connections/ConnectionSidebar'
@@ -248,12 +248,16 @@ function apiOfMode(mode: WorkspaceMode, terminalApi: DockviewApi | undefined, ss
  *  terminal dockview and hints from the server list in the ssh dockview). */
 function createTabActions(mode: WorkspaceMode): (props: IDockviewHeaderActionsProps) => React.JSX.Element {
   function TabActions({ containerApi, group }: IDockviewHeaderActionsProps): React.JSX.Element {
+    // dockview renders the header actions from its own slot, outside the
+    // App→Workspace re-render path, so the language is subscribed here (and
+    // passed down to the buttons) and every string goes through `tFor`.
+    const language = useSettingsStore((s) => s.settings.system.language ?? DEFAULT_LANGUAGE)
     // The per-group "＋" creates a local terminal — SSH sessions can only be
     // opened from the server list, so in ssh mode the button just hints.
     const { message } = App.useApp()
     const handleAdd = (): void => {
       if (mode === 'ssh') {
-        message.info(t('workspace.hint.sshFromList'))
+        message.info(tFor(language, 'workspace.hint.sshFromList'))
         return
       }
       void (async (): Promise<void> => {
@@ -272,8 +276,8 @@ function createTabActions(mode: WorkspaceMode): (props: IDockviewHeaderActionsPr
 
     return (
       <div className="workspace-tabbar-actions">
-        <AddTerminalGroupButton onClick={handleAdd} />
-        <BroadcastToggleButton />
+        <AddTerminalGroupButton language={language} onClick={handleAdd} />
+        <BroadcastToggleButton language={language} />
       </div>
     )
   }
@@ -1368,13 +1372,13 @@ export default function Workspace({ onOpenSettings }: WorkspaceProps): React.JSX
 }
 
 /** "＋" renders the new-terminal button (per-group tab addition). */
-function AddTerminalGroupButton({ onClick }: { onClick: () => void }): React.JSX.Element {
+function AddTerminalGroupButton({ onClick, language }: { onClick: () => void; language: Language }): React.JSX.Element {
   return (
     <button
       type="button"
       className="workspace-tabbar-add"
-      title={t('workspace.tab.addInSplit')}
-      aria-label={t('workspace.tab.addInSplit')}
+      title={tFor(language, 'workspace.tab.addInSplit')}
+      aria-label={tFor(language, 'workspace.tab.addInSplit')}
       onClick={onClick}
     >
       <PlusOutlined />
@@ -1383,7 +1387,7 @@ function AddTerminalGroupButton({ onClick }: { onClick: () => void }): React.JSX
 }
 
 /** 广播 target picker: toggle + Popover with per-session checkboxes. */
-function BroadcastToggleButton(): React.JSX.Element {
+function BroadcastToggleButton({ language }: { language: Language }): React.JSX.Element {
   const enabled = useBroadcastStore((s) => s.enabled)
   const targets = useBroadcastStore((s) => s.targets)
   const sessions = useBroadcastStore((s) => s.sessions)
@@ -1409,14 +1413,15 @@ function BroadcastToggleButton(): React.JSX.Element {
           sessions={sessions}
           onToggleTarget={toggleTarget}
           onSetEnabled={setEnabled}
+          language={language}
         />
       }
     >
       <button
         type="button"
         className={cls}
-        title={enabled ? t('workspace.broadcast.activeTitle', { count: targets.size }) : t('workspace.broadcast.toggle')}
-        aria-label={t('workspace.broadcast.toggle')}
+        title={enabled ? tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.activeTitle', { count: targets.size }) : tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.toggle')}
+        aria-label={tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.toggle')}
         aria-pressed={enabled}
       >
         <ShareAltOutlined />
@@ -1435,7 +1440,8 @@ function WorkspaceBroadcastPopover({
   targets,
   sessions,
   onToggleTarget,
-  onSetEnabled
+  onSetEnabled,
+  language
 }: {
   mode: WorkspaceMode
   enabled: boolean
@@ -1443,6 +1449,8 @@ function WorkspaceBroadcastPopover({
   sessions: { id: string; title: string; isSsh: boolean }[]
   onToggleTarget: (id: string) => void
   onSetEnabled: (enabled: boolean) => void
+  /** from the dockview header-actions component — see TabActions */
+  language: Language
 }): React.JSX.Element {
   const isSsh = (s: { id: string; title: string; isSsh: boolean }): boolean => s.isSsh
   const groupSessions = sessions.filter((s) => (mode === 'ssh' ? isSsh(s) : !isSsh(s)))
@@ -1451,26 +1459,26 @@ function WorkspaceBroadcastPopover({
   return (
     <div className="workspace-bcast-pop">
       <div className="workspace-bcast-pop-mode">
-        {mode === 'ssh' ? t('workspace.broadcast.popoverSsh') : t('workspace.broadcast.popoverTerminal')}
+        {mode === 'ssh' ? tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.popoverSsh') : tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.popoverTerminal')}
       </div>
       <div className="workspace-bcast-pop-switch">
-        <span className="workspace-bcast-pop-label">{t('workspace.broadcast.switch')}</span>
+        <span className="workspace-bcast-pop-label">{tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.switch')}</span>
         <Checkbox
           checked={enabled}
           disabled={targets.size < 2}
           onChange={(e) => onSetEnabled(e.target.checked)}
         >
           {enabled
-            ? t('workspace.broadcast.enabled', { count: targets.size })
+            ? tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.enabled', { count: targets.size })
             : targets.size < 2
-              ? t('workspace.broadcast.needTwo')
-              : t('workspace.broadcast.disabled')}
+              ? tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.needTwo')
+              : tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.disabled')}
         </Checkbox>
       </div>
       <div className="workspace-bcast-pop-list">
         {groupSessions.length === 0 ? (
           <div className="workspace-bcast-pop-empty">
-            {mode === 'ssh' ? t('workspace.broadcast.emptySsh') : t('workspace.broadcast.emptyTerminal')}
+            {mode === 'ssh' ? tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.emptySsh') : tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.emptyTerminal')}
           </div>
         ) : (
           groupSessions.map((s) => (
@@ -1482,7 +1490,7 @@ function WorkspaceBroadcastPopover({
           ))
         )}
       </div>
-      <div className="workspace-bcast-pop-hint">{t('workspace.broadcast.hint')}</div>
+      <div className="workspace-bcast-pop-hint">{tFor(language, 'workspace.broadcast.hint')}</div>
     </div>
   )
 }